Indian Poetics
Hello everyone this blog is responding to a thinking activity task assigned by Dr.Dilip Barad. Which is based on Indian poetics. Guided by Binod Joshi sir.
He begins his lecture with Vowels and Movement.
“We know the language, but we don’t know about the language.”
Robert Brill (Lingvistic)
Lecture begins with ‘How literature isn’t just theoretical but also helps in practical, real-world understanding.’
Bhatta Nayaka – The Theory of Experience (Bhuktivad)
Bhatta Nayaka proposed that Rasa is not just inferred but truly experienced by the audience, making it an aesthetic enjoyment (Aswadayak). This is called Bhuktivad (Theory of Enjoyment.
He introduced the concept of Sadharanikaran (Universalization), which allows the audience to detach from personal emotions and experience the emotions of the characters as a universal sentiment.
Abhinava Gupta – The Theory of Expression (Abhivyanjana vad)
He argued that Rasa is neither just inferred (like Shankuka said) nor merely enjoyed (like Bhatta Nayaka said), but it is expressed and revealed (Abhivyanjana).
According to him,
‘Prakashanandmay gyanni santi.’
When an actor performs, the emotions are expressed in such a way that they transcend personal experience and become a part of a higher aesthetic realization.
He tells about absurdism and indian poetics in which he quotes ‘Everything is absurd but beautiful’
Discussing language and creation he says, “Literature is creation into creation because language itself is a creation.” It aligns with Anandvardhana’s Dhvani theory. which holds that the essence of poetry lies in suggestion (dhvani) rather than direct meaning.
Dhvani Sampradaya (Theory of Suggestion)
Dhvani is the soul of poetry, and he regarded direct meanings as secondary in comparison to the power of suggestion. He highlighted that the beauty of a poem lies not in its explicit meaning but in what it subtly suggests.
“विभाति लावण्यं इवाङ्गनासु”
The Nature of Meaning (Arth) in Literature
Bhartrihari’s "Shabd-Brahman" (Word as Ultimate Reality), suggesting that meaning is not just inherent in words but also shaped by context and interpretation. The idea that meaning is fluid and dependent on time, space, and individual perception aligns with both modern deconstructionist theories (Derrida) and Indian linguistic philosophy (Sphota theory).
Just as a woman's beauty enhances her radiance, in poetry, Bhava (emotion) leads to Rasa (aesthetic experience), and Bhasha (language) gives rise to Dhvani (suggestion).
This connects to Anandavardhana’s Dhvani theory, where the true essence of poetry lies in suggestion rather than direct statement.Vyangya (Implied Meaning)
Mammat’s Three Levels of Meaning in Language
In his theory of meaning, identifies three functions of words:
1. Abhidha (Denotation) – The direct or primary meaning of a word. (e.g., "Lotus" simply means a flower.)
2. Lakshana (Implication) – When the direct meaning does not make sense, we derive an implied meaning. (e.g., "The village on the Ganges" does not mean the village is floating on the river but is located on its bank.)
3. Vyanjana (Suggestion) – Even when the direct meaning is clear, an additional suggested meaning emerges. (e.g., "Lotus-eyed" does not just mean someone’s eyes resemble a lotus but also implies beauty and grace.)
Vakyartha in Indian Poetics:
“Vakyarth” refers to the meaning derived from a sentence as a whole, rather than focusing on individual words. In Indian poetics, this concept is central to understanding how meaning and aesthetic experience are conveyed in literary works, particularly poetry.
Anandavardhana introduced the term "Pratiymanarth" (implied meaning) to describe the essence of Dhvani (suggestion) in poetry.
He classified Dhvani into three types:
1. Vastu Dhvani (Conceptual Suggestion) – When the suggested meaning conveys an idea or fact.
2. Alankara Dhvani (Figurative Suggestion) – When the suggestion enhances the beauty of the composition through poetic devices (Alankaras).
3. Rasa Dhvani (Emotional Suggestion) – When the suggested meaning evokes Rasa (aesthetic experience), making the poetry deeply expressive.
Ordinary,(Lokik) and Extraordinary (Alokik) Dhvani Dhvani is both Lokik (worldly) and Alokik (transcendental).
Vakrokti Sampradaya : Kuntaka’s Theory of Poetic Beauty
The term Vakrokti is derived from two Sanskrit words:
Vakra (crooked or oblique),Ukti (speech or expression).
Thus, Vakrokti translates to “oblique expression” or “creative twist in expression.” It is one of the most significant concepts in Indian literary criticism, particularly in Kuntaka's theory of poetics.
Kuntaka, in his treatise ‘Vakrokti-Jīvita,’ proposed that the essence of poetic beauty lies in ‘Vakratā’ (deviation or artistic twist in expression). According to him, poetry is not just about what is said but how it is said.
Definition of Vakrokti:
शब्दार्थौ सहितौ वक्रः काव्यव्यापारशालिनी।
बन्धे व्यवस्थितं काव्यं तद्विदाह्लादकारिणी॥
According to Kuntaka in his work Vakroktijivita, Vakrokti refers to the unique and striking use of language that distinguishes poetic expression from ordinary speech. It emphasizes the stylistic and aesthetic charm created by linguistic creativity.
1. Obliqueness in Expression:- The indirect and artistic way of conveying thoughts, rather than using plain or direct language.
2. Focus on Style (Shaili):-Vakrokti brings attention to the poet’s style and creativity in crafting sentences.
3. Relation to Rasa:- It enhances the emotional impact (rasa) of a poetic work by creating beauty through suggestiveness and subtlety.
Six types of vakrokti:-Kuntaka identifies six levels of Vakrokti, which contribute to the beauty of poetic expression:
1. Shabda Vakrata (Phonetic Deviation):
The creative use of sounds, alliteration, rhyme, and rhythm to enhance the beauty of words. This refers to the creative use of phonetics to enhance the aesthetic quality of a poetic composition. Techniques like alliteration (anuprasa), rhyme, and sound patterns are used to evoke beauty and harmony.
Example:- Use of repetitive consonant sounds or musical syllables to create a melodious effect.
2. Pada Purvardha Vakrata (Lexical Deviation - First Half):
Focuses on the unique selection of words in the first part of a phrase or line. The choice of words adds freshness, ensuring that even common ideas seem unique and engaging.
Example: "Judi to judi tu rahu, judu kunj tu rahu" – showcases the aesthetic effect of similar yet distinct word choices
3. Pada Uttarardh Vakrata (Lexical Deviation - Second Half):
Deals with word choice and arrangement in the latter part of a phrase or line. Often balances the aesthetic effect created in the earlier part of the sentence.
Example: Complementary phrases like "To be, or not to be" emphasize stylistic balance.
4. Vakya Vakrata (Syntactic Deviation):
This involves manipulating sentence structure to make the expression unique and striking. Poets may play with word order or create suspense through syntax.
Example: "To be, or not to be" – The balanced and rhythmic structure of the sentence adds depth.
5. Prakarana Vakrata (Contextual Deviation):
Refers to the creative arrangement of events or ideas in a specific context. The storyline or thematic context becomes more engaging through imaginative presentation.
Example:-In drama or poetry, suspenseful placement of events keeps the audience captivated.
6. Prabandha Vakrata (Compositional Deviation):
Concerns the overall framework of the composition.
Includes the arrangement of chapters, sequences, or acts in a literary work to maintain artistic unity.
Example:-A play or epic is crafted in such a way that all elements work cohesively while still offering variety.
Significance of Vakrokti in Indian Poetics
1. Aesthetic Appeal:-
Vakrokti elevates the aesthetic beauty of a literary work by introducing novelty in expression.
2. Distinction of Poetry:-
It differentiates poetic language from ordinary speech, making it more impactful and memorable.
3. Universal Application:-
The concept of Vakrokti is not limited to poetry but applies to all forms of artistic expression where beauty in language is prioritized.
4. Foundation for Later Theories:-
Vakrokti serves as a precursor to later developments in Indian poetics, such as Anandavardhana’s Dhvani (suggestion) and Abhinavagupta’s rasa theory.
वेदाग्ध्यभङ्गी भाणिति|
When something is expressed in a Vedāgdhya (distinguished or refined) manner, it means that words are arranged skillfully with profound meaning, giving joy to connoisseurs (Tadvidaḥ – those with refined taste and knowledge).
Vakrokti is the heart of poetic creativity in Indian poetics. By emphasizing the oblique and artistic use of language, it transforms ordinary expressions into extraordinary ones, thereby enhancing the reader's or listener's experience of the text.
Alankāra Sampradāya – Bhāmaha
The Alankāra School of literary theory was pioneered by Bhāmaha, who emphasized the importance of figures of speech (Alankāras) in poetry. According to him, poetic beauty lies in the use of Alankāras (rhetorical and ornamental devices), making poetry more effective and aesthetically pleasing.
Bhāmaha was one of the earliest Sanskrit literary critics, and his work "Kāvyālaṅkāra" explains various figures of speech, similes, and metaphors that enhance the expressive power of poetry.
The Four Pillars of Bhāratīya Mīmāṁsā (Indian Poetics):
Indian literary theory (Bhartiya Mīmāṁsā) is built on four major pillars, which define different aspects of poetic and aesthetic expression:
1. Rasa (Aesthetic Emotion):
Developed by Bharatamuni, this theory focuses on how aesthetic pleasure (Rasa) arises from poetry and drama through emotions (Bhāvas).
2. Dhvani (Suggestive Meaning):
Propounded by Ānandavardhana, this theory emphasizes that the real essence of poetry lies in its implied (suggested) meaning rather than explicit words.
3. Vakrokti (Stylized Expression):
Introduced by Kuntaka, Vakrokti highlights how poetry derives its beauty from artistic deviation, uniqueness, and creative presentation.
4. Alankāra (Figures of Speech):
Established by Bhāmaha and later refined by others, this theory asserts that ornamental expressions (Alankāras) make poetry more effective and beautiful.
Each of these four schools of thought contributed significantly to the development of Indian literary aesthetics, shaping the way poetry and drama are analyzed and appreciated.
भारतीया कविरे जयति।
Bhāmaha’s Alankāra Theory :
Bhāmaha is a key figure in Alankāra Shāstra (the study opoetic ornaments). In Bhalan's Nalakhyan, there is a discussion related to Bhāmaha’s views, where he asserts that Vakrokti (stylistic expression) itself is an Alankāra (figure of speech).
Later, Viśvanātha in his work Sahitya Darpan elaborated on Guṇa (qualities), Alankāra (ornaments), and Rīti (style) as essential elements of poetry.
Significance of Alankāra in Poetry
Alankāra is based on language and its artistic usage.
Alankāra is considered the soul of poetry, as it enhances the beauty and expressiveness of poetic compositions.
Thus, Bhāmaha’s Alankāra theory played a crucial role in shaping the ornamental aspect of Sanskrit poetics, emphasizing the importance of figures of speech in elevating the poetic experience.
"शालङ्कृतं काव्यम्।"
If Alankāra (figure of speech) appears external or artificial, then it is not considered a true Alankāra. In literature, if an Alankāra is too obvious or easily recognizable, it loses its poetic essence and is not regarded as a true ornament.
A true Alankāra blends seamlessly into the language, becoming an integral part of the expression rather than standing out separately.
साधर्म्यम् उपमाभेदे।
When there is possibility (sambhāvanā), it is called Utprekṣā (hypothetical comparison).When there is similarity (sādṛśya), it is called Upamā (simile).When there is identity (abheda), it is called Rūpaka (metaphor).
Riti (Style): Vaman
Riti refers to the distinct styles that each poet or work may possess. Every poet or literary piece has its own unique style. For example, Dandi's "Dashakumaracharita" showcases a particular style of narration.
The place (sthal) also determines the style, and the style based on the place is considered more significant, like Vamana's style, which is influenced by the location.
Some examples of specific styles include:- Godi Style,
Panchali Style, Kalidasa’s Vedarthi Style,The style that has a greater impact is referred to as Riti.
Ochitya Sampraday - Khemendra
Ochitya means appropriateness or suitability. Ochitya requires that there be a balance or measure in everything. When there is no balance or measure, there is no effective impact. Ochitya is connected with modernity. Where there is appropriateness (ochitya), there is no modernity, and where there is modernity, there is no appropriateness.
Ramaniyata Sampraday – Jagannatha:
Jagannatha, in his famous work "Rasgangadhar," discusses the concept of Ramaniyata (aesthetic beauty). According to him, Ramaniyata is the essence of poetry and is what makes a literary work truly delightful.
1. Ramaniyata as the Core of Poetry:
Jagannatha believes that poetry should possess aesthetic beauty and charm to be considered great.The essence of poetry lies in its ability to evoke pleasure and emotional resonance.
2. Connection with Rasa Theory:
Just as Rasa (emotion) is central to drama and poetry, Ramaniyata (aesthetic appeal) enhances the beauty of literary expressions.
3. The Role of Language and Expression:
Elegant use of language, refined expressions, and vivid imagery contribute to the Ramaniyata of poetry.Even simple ideas, when presented beautifully, become impactful.
4. Comparison with Other Theories:
Unlike Riti Sampraday (which focuses on style) and Dhvani Sampraday (which emphasizes suggestion), Ramaniyata Sampraday highlights the innate beauty and appeal of words and emotions in poetry.
रमणीयार्थप्रतिपादकः शब्दः काव्यम्।
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